A Review of Biopesticide-Based Management of Helicoverpa
armigera in Chickpea and Mung Bean
Samra Khanam1*, Dr. Sunita Singh2
1 Research Scholar, Government Girls
Autonomous PG Excellence College, Sagar, Madhya Pradesh, India
2 Professor of Zoology, Government Girls
Autonomous PG Excellence College, Sagar, Madhya Pradesh, India
ashwanikhajuraho@gmail.com
Abstract: Chickpea (Cicer arietinum
L.) and mung bean (Vigna radiata L.) are important pulse crops that
play a vital role in nutritional security, soil fertility improvement, and the
livelihoods of small and marginal farmers. However, their production is
significantly affected by the gram pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner),
a highly destructive and polyphagous pest that damages leaves, flowers, and
developing pods, leading to serious yield and quality losses. Conventional
management of this pest largely depends on synthetic insecticides, which,
although effective, have resulted in issues such as resistance development,
environmental pollution, residue problems, and adverse effects on non-target
organisms. In recent years, biopesticides have emerged as sustainable and
eco-friendly alternatives for managing H. armigera. Botanical
extracts, microbial agents such as Bacillus thuringiensis and
nucleopolyhedrovirus (NPV), and entomopathogenic fungi have shown promising
results in reducing larval populations and minimizing pod damage in pulse
crops. The integration of these biopesticides within an Integrated Pest
Management (IPM) framework offers a viable approach for sustainable pulse
production and safer food systems.
Keywords: Biopesticides, Helicoverpa Armigera,
Chickpea, Mung Bean, Integrated Pest Management (IPM).
INTRODUCTION
Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)
and mung bean (Vigna radiata L.) are important pulse crops cultivated
widely for their high protein content and economic value, particularly in
developing countries. These crops contribute significantly to nutritional
security and sustainable agriculture due to their ability to fix atmospheric
nitrogen and improve soil health. However, their productivity is severely
affected by insect pests, among which the gram pod borer, Helicoverpa
armigera (Hübner), is considered one of the most destructive species. The
pest attacks crops at flowering and pod formation stages, feeding on leaves,
flowers, and developing pods, resulting in substantial yield losses. [1][2]
Helicoverpa armigera is highly adaptable and exhibits
rapid population growth and migratory behavior, making its management challenging.
Population dynamics studies in chickpea have shown that pest incidence
fluctuates with seasonal conditions, often reaching peak levels during
reproductive crop stages. Traditionally, farmers rely heavily on chemical
insecticides for managing this pest. Although chemical molecules such as
chlorantraniliprole are effective, concerns regarding resistance development,
environmental contamination, and non-target toxicity have increased in recent
years. [3] Additionally, studies evaluating compounds like spinosad have
highlighted their physiological effects on H. armigera, indicating the
need for careful and judicious application strategies. [4]
In response to the limitations of
synthetic insecticides, biopesticides have gained importance as eco-friendly alternatives
for sustainable pest management. Biopesticides derived from microbial sources,
including entomopathogenic bacteria and viruses, are considered safer to
natural enemies and the environment. [5] Field evaluations have demonstrated
that bio-pesticides such as Bacillus thuringiensis and
nucleopolyhedrovirus (NPV), either alone or in combination, can effectively
reduce larval populations of H. armigera in chickpea. Similarly, recent
research has confirmed the efficacy of various biopesticides in minimizing pod
damage and improving crop yield under field conditions. [6]
Furthermore, comparative studies
between chemical insecticides and biopesticides in pulse crops, including green
gram, indicate that bio-based treatments can provide satisfactory control while
reducing ecological risks. Although much of the genomic research in
lepidopteran pests has focused on species such as Spodoptera frugiperda,
such studies emphasize the complexity of pest adaptation and the importance of
integrated and sustainable management approaches. [7] Therefore, understanding
the role of biopesticides within an integrated pest management (IPM) framework
is essential for long-term suppression of H. armigera in chickpea and
mung bean cultivation.
This review aims to synthesize recent
findings on biopesticide-based management strategies against Helicoverpa
armigera, highlighting their efficacy, mechanisms, and potential
integration into sustainable pulse production systems.
AGRICULTURE IN
INDIA AND CROP LOSSES DUE TO INSECT PESTS
Food security, rural
employment, and socio-economic stability are all greatly influenced by India's
agricultural sector, which has historically been and will continue to be the
country's economic backbone. The agricultural sector provides a living for a sizable
segment of India's population. The agricultural industry continues to play a
significant role in rural families' income generation and national development,
even while the industrial sector and the service sector are seeing tremendous
expansion. [8] Reducing poverty, ensuring adequate nutrition, and boosting the
economy are all tied to how well the agricultural sector is doing.
Pest insects eat on many
parts of plants, including their leaves, stems, roots, blossoms, pods, and
grains, and they may harm crops at any point in their development. Crop losses
are worsened when some pests spread plant diseases. Due to inferior grain
quality, shrivelling, discolouration, and contamination, insect pest damage not
only decreases output but also affects market value. Although these intangible
losses are often overlooked, they may have a significant impact on farmers'
bottom lines. [9]
Due to the fact that the
weather is always changing, the problem of insect pest damage becomes even more
serious. A multitude
of factors, including global warming, changes in rainfall patterns, and an
increase in extreme weather events, have altered the dynamics of insect pest
populations. As a consequence of climate change, some
economically relevant insect pests are becoming more prevalent, which speeds up
their life cycles and boosts their chances of survival, according to the
findings of researchers. [10] Unpredictable and severe outbreaks of insects are
becoming increasingly common, which presents a significant challenge for agricultural
produce producers.
Historically, chemical
pesticides have been the main tool used by farmers to reduce crop losses.
Agricultural output was boosted by the advent of synthetic pesticides, which
effectively controlled insect pests at first. Insecticide resistance, secondary
pest revival, natural enemy annihilation, environmental pollution, and
indiscriminate and excessive chemical usage are some of the negative outcomes
that have resulted from this practice. [11]
Reducing crop losses
caused by insect pests by sustainable approaches is of utmost significance in
the context of Indian agriculture, where small and marginal farmers dominate.
Reduced input costs, safer food production, and less pollution may all result
from using biopesticides. In order to improve agricultural output and guarantee
food security in India, it is crucial to identify the extent to which insect
pests cause crop losses and to create effective management techniques based on
biopesticides.
NUTRITIONAL
AND ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF CHICKPEA AND MUNG
BEAN
Chickpeas, also known as
Cicer arietinum L., are one of the
most extensively cultivated pulse crops. They are absolutely necessary for
supplying nutrition, income, and food security, particularly in countries that
are economically disadvantaged. The term "poor man's meat" is
occasionally used to refer to pulses since they provide populations with low
incomes a source of protein that is both inexpensive and of excellent quality.
Due to the fact that it is loaded with nutrients and may be used in a wide
variety of ways in the kitchen, chickpea is considered to be one of the most
versatile pulse crops. Because of the prevalence of vegetarianism in India,
chickpeas are an essential source of both energy and protein in the country's
diet. Its constant usage makes compensate for the protein deficiency that is
present in diets that are based on cereal. [12] This results in a significant
improvement in nutritional health.
The high protein content
of chickpeas which typically falls between 18 and 24 percent is largely
responsible for their nutritional excellence. Chickpeas are an important part
of healthy diets since they provide a lot of protein, more so than most cereal
crops. Proteins from chickpeas are rich in critical amino acids like leucine, arginine,
and lysine, which are often lacking in grains of cereal. On the other hand,
cysteine and methionine, which are amino acids that contain sulfur, are not
abundant in chickpea proteins. Chickpeas, when eaten with cereals, enhance the
protein quality of the diet and work well as a supplement to cereal proteins,
which is especially helpful for vegetarians in South Asian diets.
The health benefits of
chickpea are enhanced by its abundance of bioactive components, including
antioxidants, flavonoids, and phenolics. By lowering oxidative stress and
cellular damage, these chemicals aid in neutralizing free radicals in the body.
It has been shown that the antioxidants included in chickpeas may help reduce
inflammation and protect against cancer. There is some evidence that eating
chickpeas on a regular basis will lower your chance of developing chronic
conditions including heart disease, obesity, type 2 diabetes, and certain
malignancies. [13] Chickpeas are becoming more and more known as functional
foods that provide health advantages beyond just nutrition.
For tiny and marginal
landholders in semi-arid locations, chickpeas are a very significant crop from
an economic standpoint. Because of its low input requirements compared to other
cereal crops, it is mostly grown in rainfed environments. Chickpeas are an
economical crop since they need less in the way of inputs and require less
watering. Chickpeas are a popular crop among farmers because of their
consistent demand and steady market price. A major factor in raising farm
revenue and bettering rural people' lives is the economic feasibility of
growing chickpeas.
Growing chickpeas is a
great way for people in rural regions to find work. Land preparation, planting,
weeding, harvesting, and threshing are just a few of the many steps in
agricultural production that need labor. Jobs are also created in the
post-harvest processing industry, which includes tasks such as grinding dal,
making flour, and preparing snacks. Many rural families rely on these
activities for income, which are often carried out at the village or
small-scale industrial levels. There is a strong correlation between women's
participation in post-harvest activities and their increased agency and
economic independence. [14]
The nutritional,
economic, and ecological importance of chickpeas places them in a special and
irreplaceable position in Indian agriculture. Its significance is highlighted
by the fact that it promotes sustainable agricultural techniques, increases
farmers' income, and guarantees food and nutritional security. Successful
control of yield-limiting variables, especially insect pests, is essential for
optimizing chickpea crop advantages. Biopesticides and other sustainable pest
control strategies may save chickpea crops without compromising human or
environmental health. The full potential of chickpea agriculture can only be
realized via ongoing study and the use of environmentally friendly methods.”
INSECT PESTS OF
CHICKPEA
Infestation by various
insect pests is one of the main obstacles to reaching potential yield in
chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) since
it attacks the crop throughout its growing phase. As they eat on the plant's
leaves, blossoms, pods, and grains, insect pests cause harm to the crop at
every stage, from planting to harvest. How bad an infestation is depending on
farmers' pest control strategies, cropping methods, and agro-climatic
conditions. A wide range of herbivorous insects are attracted to chickpeas
because of their high nutritional content and delicate leaves.
It has been shown that
chickpeas are infested by over 60 distinct types of pest insects worldwide.
Lepidoptera, Hemiptera, Coleoptera, and Diptera are only a few of the orders to
which these pests belong. Though some of them do periodic economic harm, this is
far from the norm. Minor harm is caused by the residual bugs that appear
sometimes. The lepidopteran pests are particularly dangerous because of their
eating habits and ability to reproduce. [15]
The insect pest complex
that chickpeas are susceptible to varies according on the region and the time
of year. A significant part of the dynamics of pest populations is determined
by climatic conditions such as humidity, temperature, and rainfall. Insect
pests are able to rapidly multiply when the circumstances are warm and dry
during the blooming and pod development phases. In regions that are dependent
on rainwater, the presence of stress conditions often makes pests more
prevalent, which results in increased agricultural losses. (Lateef and Pimbert,
1990), the persistent raising of chickpeas in certain areas has also led to the
accumulation of pest populations over the course of time.
Insect pests
attacking chickpea can be broadly categorized into foliage feeders, sap feeders
and pod borers. Foliage feeders such as cutworms and caterpillars cause damage
by defoliation, reducing the photosynthetic capacity of the plant. Sap feeders
weaken the plant by extracting cell sap, leading to stunted growth and poor pod
development. Pod borers directly damage the economic produce by feeding on
developing seeds, resulting in substantial yield loss. [16]
Infestations of
chickpea, especially during their vegetative stage, may occur from the
foliage-feeding tobacco caterpillar (Spodoptera litura). Skeletonization and
severe defoliation are caused by the gregarious feeding of the larvae on
leaves. Even though it's only a little bug, it can do a lot of harm if the
circumstances are right. If leaf feeders get to a plant too early, they might
stunt its development and weaken its defenses, which lowers its yield
potential.
Bugs that feed on chickpea sap are
another major pest group that chickpeas might face. Pests like thrips, aphids,
and jassids may attack plants while they're young. By sucking plant sap and
injecting toxic saliva, aphids curl the leaves, turn them yellow, and limit the
plant's growth. They also discourage the growth of sooty mould, which lowers
photosynthesis, by their secretion of honeydew. When aphids take over a plant,
it may dry it out completely. [17]
Whiteflies (Bemisia
tabaci) are another sap-sucking pest that occasionally infests chickpea.
Though primarily known as a pest of cotton and vegetables, whiteflies can
colonize chickpea under certain conditions. They weaken plants through sap
extraction and also act as vectors of viral diseases. Their rapid
multiplication and resistance to insecticides make them difficult to manage.
Whitefly infestation is more prominent during dry weather conditions and in
fields with continuous host availability.
When it comes to
chickpea pests, pod borers are by far the worst. The most destructive and
pervasive of these pests is the gram pod borer, scientifically known as Helicoverpa armigera. By burrowing into
blooms and pods, the larvae consume growing seeds for food. During its growth,
a single larva may harm many pods, leading to significant losses in production.
The pest's polyphagy and adaptability make it a constant danger to chickpea
farming.
The damage
caused by pod borers is particularly severe during flowering and pod formation
stages. Infested pods show characteristic round holes with partially eaten
grains. Such damage not only reduces yield but also affects grain quality and
market value. Pod borer infestation often leads to secondary infections by fungi
and bacteria, further deteriorating seed quality. Yield losses caused by pod
borers can vary widely depending on pest pressure and management practices. [18]
Another
important pest of chickpea is the leaf miner (Liriomyza cicerina),
which attacks the crop during early growth stages. The larvae feed within leaf
tissues, creating serpentine mines that reduce photosynthetic efficiency.
Severe infestation can lead to premature leaf drop and poor plant vigour. Leaf
miner damage is more common in cooler regions and under irrigated conditions.
Although considered a minor pest, it can cause economic damage when population
levels are high.
Soil-dwelling insect pests such as termites (Odontotermes
spp.) and cutworms also pose a threat to chickpea, particularly at seedling
stage. Termites cause wilting and eventual
plant death by feeding on underground plant tissues, such as roots and stems.
During the night, cutworms nibble at seedlings at ground level, causing uneven
crop stand. These pests are more prevalent in dry and
sandy soils and can cause significant stand loss if not managed timely. [19]
The
incidence and severity of insect pests in chickpea are strongly influenced by
cropping systems and agronomic practices. Continuous monocropping, late sowing
and excessive nitrogen fertilization often favour pest buildup. Lack of crop
rotation and improper residue management further exacerbate pest problems.
Understanding the pest ecology and adopting appropriate cultural practices can
help minimize pest incidence and reduce reliance on chemical control measures.
The
management of insect pests in chickpea is challenging due to overlapping pest
generations and prolonged crop duration. Many pests exhibit high reproductive
rates and rapid population buildup. Moreover, the presence of multiple host
crops in the surrounding landscape ensures year-round survival of pests. These
factors complicate pest management and necessitate integrated approaches that
combine cultural, biological and chemical methods.
BIOLOGY, DISTRIBUTION AND DAMAGE
POTENTIAL OF HELICOVERPA ARMIGERA
The gram pod borer, also
known as Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner)
in the scientific community, is one of the insect pests that causes the
greatest damage to pulse crops in India, particularly chickpea and mung bean. A
member of the order Lepidoptera, the Noctuidae family is the name of this
particular insect family. A number of factors contribute to the widespread
recognition of this insect, including its desire to rapidly reproduce, its
ability to move from one location to another, and its resistance to a variety
of pesticides. It is because of these characteristics that H. armigera has become a big concern for the production of pulses
in a number of locations throughout the country, and Madhya Pradesh, which is
located in the center of India, is not an exception. At the larval stage, it
feeds directly on pods and flowers, which results in a considerable reduction
in both production and quality. This causes severe damage caused by the larval
stage. [20]
Range of
Hosts and Distribution: Helicoverpa armigera has an
exceptionally wide geographical distribution and is considered a cosmopolitan
pest species. It is widely distributed in Asia, Africa, Europe, Australia and
parts of South America. In Asia, the pest is particularly prominent in India,
Pakistan, Bangladesh and China, where it attacks a variety of economically important
crops. In India, H. armigera occurs
in almost all agro-climatic regions, ranging from arid and semi-arid zones to
humid and sub-humid regions, indicating its remarkable adaptability to diverse
environmental conditions.
BIOPESTICIDES IN SUSTAINABLE
MANAGEMENT OF HELICOVERPA ARMIGERA
Biopesticides are an
effective method of pest control that utilizes substances sourced from nature,
including plants, microbes, animals, and minerals. To manage pests in a
non-toxic or less harmful way, biopesticides rely on naturally occurring chemicals
rather than manmade chemical pesticides. Some of their possible effects include
preventing food intake, stunting development, warding against pests, or even
killing via infection. In general, biopesticides are safe for both the
environment and non-target species due to their biodegradability and natural
origin.
There are three main
types of biopesticides: those that target plants, those that target microbes,
and those that target chemicals. Plant extracts with insecticidal or repellant
characteristics are the basis of botanical biopesticides. Some examples of such
extracts include neem, pyrethrum, and karanj. Bacteria, viruses, fungus, and
protozoa are all examples of microbial biopesticides, which infect insects and
destroy them. Pheromones and insect growth regulators are examples of naturally
occurring chemicals that make up biochemical biopesticides; these substances
hinder the behavior or development of pests.
The concept of using
biopesticides is closely linked with sustainable agriculture and IPM.
Biopesticides are considered compatible with IPM programmes because they are
selective in action and conserve beneficial organisms. Their use helps maintain
ecological balance while keeping pest populations below economic threshold
levels. In recent years, increasing awareness about environmental safety and
food quality has accelerated interest in biopesticides as alternatives to
chemical pesticides. [21]
Biopesticides act
through diverse mechanisms, making them effective tools against insect pests
like Helicoverpa armigera. Microbial biopesticides such as Bacillus
thuringiensis and nuclear polyhedrosis virus infect larvae and disrupt
their physiological processes, ultimately causing death. Botanical
biopesticides mainly act as antifeedants, oviposition deterrents or growth
inhibitors, thereby reducing pest damage rather than causing immediate
mortality. [22]
In the context of pulse
crops such as chickpea and mung bean, biopesticides are particularly important
because these crops are consumed directly and are highly sensitive to pesticide
residues. The use of biopesticides ensures safer food production while reducing
dependence on hazardous chemicals. With increasing restrictions on chemical
pesticide use and growing demand for residue-free produce, biopesticides have
emerged as an essential component of modern pest management strategies.
Botanical Biopesticides: Botanical biopesticides are plant-derived products that possess
insecticidal, repellent or growth-regulating properties and are widely used in
sustainable pest management. Among various botanical sources, neem (Azadirachta
indica) occupies a unique and prominent position due to its broad-spectrum
activity against insect pests and its eco-friendly nature. Neem-based products
have been used traditionally in Indian agriculture for centuries and are now
recognized globally as effective botanical biopesticides. Their importance has increased
in recent years due to growing concerns over environmental pollution and
pesticide residues associated with chemical insecticides. Neem contains a wide
range of biologically active compounds, collectively known as limonoids, of
which azadirachtin is the most potent and well-studied. Other important
compounds include salannin, nimbin and meliantriol, which contribute to the
insecticidal properties of neem. These compounds do not act as quick poisons
but interfere with normal physiological and behavioural processes of insects.
As a result, neem-based products are considered safer alternatives to synthetic
insecticides, as they reduce pest damage without causing severe ecological
disruption.
Microbial Biopesticides: Pest control chemicals
generated from microorganisms found in nature, including bacteria, viruses, and
fungus, are known as microbial biopesticides. Due to their specialized activity
against target species and little influence on non-target organisms, these
biopesticides find extensive usage in sustainable agriculture. Because they
infect and decrease larval populations without disrupting ecological balance,
microbial biopesticides are vital in Helicoverpa
armigera control. When it comes to controlling lepidopteran pests in pulse
crops, the most researched and commercially used microbial agents are Bt and
NPV.
Fungal Biopesticides: The use of fungal
biopesticides, which are essential microbial agents for the biological control
of insect pests, is a significant component of sustainable pest management
systems. Fungi are frequent bug illnesses that are transmitted via physical
contact rather than through the consumption of food. Fungal biopesticides are
effective against insect pests at every stage of their life cycle, from larvae
to adults, as a result of the distinctive mechanism of action that they use. Entomopathogenic fungi, including
Metarhizium anisopliae, Beauveria bassiana, and Nomuraea rileyi, show
tremendous promise for lowering Helicoverpa armigera populations without
upsetting ecological balance when used for management purposes.
LIMITATIONS OF
CONVENTIONAL CHEMICAL CONTROL
The
management of Helicoverpa armigera in
chickpea and mung bean has traditionally relied on synthetic chemical
insecticides due to their rapid action and immediate reduction of pest
populations. However, continuous and indiscriminate use of these chemicals has
led to several serious limitations that threaten the sustainability of pulse
production systems. Major concerns associated with conventional chemical
control include resistance development, environmental contamination, and
pesticide residue problems. [23]
One
of the most critical challenges in chemical pest management is the development
of insecticide resistance. Helicoverpa
armigera is known for its high reproductive potential, genetic variability,
and adaptability, which enable it to rapidly develop resistance to commonly
used insecticides. Repeated application of the same or similar chemical
molecules exerts selection pressure on pest populations, allowing resistant
individuals to survive and multiply. Over time, this reduces the effectiveness
of insecticides, leading to increased application frequency and higher doses,
further aggravating resistance issues. The emergence of resistance not only
increases production costs for farmers but also limits the available chemical
options for effective pest control. [24]
Excessive
use of chemical insecticides poses significant risks to the environment. Many
synthetic pesticides are non-selective and may harm beneficial organisms such
as pollinators, natural enemies, soil microbes, and aquatic fauna. Disruption
of natural enemy populations can result in secondary pest outbreaks and
ecological imbalance. Additionally, pesticide runoff and leaching can
contaminate soil and water bodies, affecting biodiversity and ecosystem health.
Long-term exposure to chemical pesticides has also been associated with adverse
effects on human health, particularly for farm workers and consumers. These
environmental concerns have intensified the need for eco-friendly and
sustainable pest management alternatives. [25]
Pulse
crops like chickpea and mung bean are directly consumed as food, making
pesticide residue a major issue. Improper application, excessive dosage, and
failure to observe waiting periods can result in chemical residues persisting
in harvested produce. Such residues may pose health risks to consumers and can
lead to rejection of produce in domestic and international markets due to
strict maximum residue limits (MRLs). Residue accumulation also affects export
potential and reduces consumer confidence in food safety. Therefore, minimizing
pesticide residues has become a priority in modern agriculture, encouraging the
adoption of safer alternatives such as biopesticides.
CONCLUSION
The
gram pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera, remains a major constraint in
chickpea and mung bean production due to its wide host range, high reproductive
capacity, and destructive feeding behavior. Overreliance on chemical
insecticides has created ecological and resistance-related challenges,
emphasizing the need for safer and sustainable pest management strategies.
Biopesticides, including botanical, microbial, and fungal agents, provide
effective and environmentally compatible alternatives for controlling this
pest. Their selective action, biodegradability, and compatibility with natural
enemies make them suitable components of Integrated Pest Management programs.
Although challenges such as variable field performance and formulation
stability exist, continued research, farmer awareness, and policy support can
enhance their adoption. Therefore, biopesticide-based management represents a
sustainable pathway for long-term suppression of H. armigera while
ensuring environmental safety, reduced chemical dependence, and improved
productivity in pulse cultivation.
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